Sarojini Naidu, known as Bharat Kokila or the Nightingale of India, was a poet, freedom fighter, and the first woman governor of an Indian state. Her lyrical poems captured India’s everyday beauty and culture, and earned her lasting fame.

One of her most beautiful poems is ‘In the Bazaars of Hyderabad’, which captures the rich life and colours of India. Her speciality lay in writing so vividly that even today we can step into that long-ago bazaar in our minds and feel it come fully alive.   

In the Bazaars of Hyderabad

What do you sell, O ye merchants?
Richly your wares are displayed.
Turbans of crimson and silver,
Tunics of purple brocade,
Mirrors with panels of amber,
Daggers with handles of jade.

What do you weigh, O ye vendors?
Saffron, lentil, and rice.
What do you grind, O ye maidens? 
Sandalwood, henna, and spice. 
What do you call, O ye pedlars? 
Chessmen and ivory dice.

What do you make, O ye goldsmiths?
Wristlet and anklet and ring, 
Bells for the feet of blue pigeons, 
Frail as a dragon-fly’s wing, 
Girdles of gold for the dancers,
Scabbards of gold for the kings.

What do you cry, O ye fruit merchants? 
Citron, pomegranate, and plum. 
What do you play, O ye musicians? 
Sitar, sarangi, and drum. 
What do you chant, O ye magicians? 
Spells for the aeons to come.

What do you weave, O ye flower-girls?
With tassels of azure and red? 
Crowns for the brow of a bridegroom, 
Chaplets to garland his bed.
Sheets of white blossoms new-garnered
To perfume the sleep of the dead. 

The poem uses rich imagery to paint clear pictures of goods like crimson turbans, henna-tinted palms, saffron, and roses for temple crowns, making the market feel real and close. Even in silent reading, its rhythmic structure and repeated sounds, like vendor calls of “What do you sell?”, bring to mind the noises of bargaining, talking, and music. 

At a time when India was under British rule, which disregarded Indian vibrancy and saw it as a resource to exploit, this poem was a quiet dissent, as it showed local crafts, festivals, and daily life with pride, offering a positive, sensory portrait of India’s cultural depth. 

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– By Shree Sauparnika V

More than a century before India declared itself a democracy, Savitribai Phule was laying its moral foundation—with chalk, slate and poetry. Known to most as India’s first woman teacher, she was also a radical poet who wielded words like weapons in her fight against caste and gender oppression. 

Her collection Kavya Phule, published in 1854, includes verses that cry out for justice, that imagine a better world, and that demand transformation — not just in laws or institutions, but in hearts and minds. Her poetry, written in accessible Marathi, was meant to awaken the oppressed and shake the powerful. 

Today, when caste discrimination, misogyny, and social inequity still haunt the Indian landscape, her poems feel more like prophecy than relic.  

Rage: Naming the Injustice

Savitribai’s poetry is known for the varying effects it has on different audiences. And it still holds true for her translated works. 

“O learned man, why do you not learn to be human first?” 

This is a quote directly translated from one of her poems. This sentence alone surges in depth and value when interpreted another way: 

“O learned man, tell me, what is your knowledge worth 

if you do not understand the pain of others?”  

– Savitribai Phule First Memorial Lecture, by Prof. Meenakshi Moon 

Savitribai’s rage was not veiled in metaphor — it was a searing critique of social injustice. It was rooted in lived experience—her own and that of the marginalised communities around her. She saw how religion was manipulated to maintain caste hierarchies. She called it out, fearlessly and directly. Poem after poem, she urged the oppressed to recognise their worth and reject a society that deems them inferior. 

In Go, Get Education, she wrote: 

“Be self-reliant, be industrious 

Work — gather wisdom and riches. 

All religions recognise the right to learn. 

Why don’t you?” 

 – translated by Dr. Aalochana Gaikwad, 1994

Her anger was righteous, rooted in a love for her people and a belief in their right to dignity. 

Resistance: The Pen as Protest 

At a time when education was denied to women and the oppressed castes, Savitribai’s advocacy for learning was a political act. Her poetry told readers that their destiny was not bound by birth. She encouraged them to rise, to learn, and to lead. 

She herself was living proof. Born into a marginalised community, she went on to become a teacher, an activist, a caregiver, and a writer. Her poems were not detached reflections — they were deeply connected to her work in schools, shelters for widows, and her resistance to social taboos.  

Savitribai’s writing was not just personal expression—it was activism. She used poetry to speak directly to marginalised communities, especially Dalits and women. Her verses are filled with rallying cries to throw off the chains of oppression: 

“You should become learned, 

Remove the darkness within you 

And march ahead, brother!” 

– translated by Rosalind O’Hanlon in A Comparison Between Women and Men, 1994 

In a world where women’s voices were silenced, her decision to publish poetry in Marathi, accessible to common people, was itself radical. She was not writing for elite audiences. She was writing to awaken her people. 

Her resistance continues to inspire Dalit, feminist, and anti-caste writers across India today. 

Rebirth: The Hope in Her Vision 

Even as her poetry called out injustice, Savitribai believed in transformation—of individuals, of society, of the future. She saw education as the pathway to a new world: 

“We will plant the seeds of knowledge 

And nurture them with our sweat — 

One day they will blossom 

And the fruit will be sweet.” 

–  translated by Gail Omvedt, inspired by her agricultural metaphor from Kavya Phule

Her poems envisioned rebirth through awareness, collective struggle, and compassion. Her own life—educating girls, sheltering widows, adopting a child from an inter-caste family—was a living embodiment of that vision. 

She was among the earliest Indian writers to articulate an egalitarian spiritual vision, rejecting orthodox religion while embracing universal human values. Her poetic vision was one of rebirth—a world where every human being could thrive with dignity. 

Why We Must Read Her Today 

Savitribai’s poetry is not a relic — it is a mirror and a map. It reflects the unfinished struggles of today: access to education, caste violence, gender discrimination. But it also shows us a path: to rise through knowledge, solidarity, and fearless truth-telling. 

We often speak of her as a teacher, an icon, a social reformer. But we must also remember her as a poet — one who dared to write when most women weren’t allowed to read. Her poems weren’t just reactions; they were revolutions. 

To read her today is to remember that change does not come from silence. It comes from voices that speak — even when the world doesn’t want to hear them. 

To read her today is to believe that liberation is possible. 

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Bama

Bama Faustina Soosairaj was born on 14 March 1958, in the village of W. Puthupathy in Tamil Nadu. Her father was in the Indian Army and her mother worked as a coolie. It was her mother, Bama says, who brought her up as a sensitive human being. Bama’s childhood had a definitive impact on her thoughts. As a child, she would accompany her grandmother during school holidays to their landlord’s fields. It was here that she first witnessed the humiliation their caste faced, that she was later to write about in her autobiography, Karukku (1992). From a distance, she would watch her grandmother being given stale food by the landlord’s wife, in the very cowshed they cleaned. She would hear the many taunts and abuses that were hurled at them by others in the fields. The contempt they were held in made her very unhappy. Bama was a good student and after 8th grade, she was sent to a nearby town for higher studies. 

Bama’s grandfather had converted to Christianity. She also decided to take the holy orders to escape caste-based discrimination. Then began her journey to educate children and women about their self-respect and self-esteem. As a primary school teacher, she underscored the importance of social equality in her students. She also lectured in colleges, acting upon Dr Ambedkar’s advice, which had motivated her to stand tall: “to educate, agitate and organize.”  

Bama feels that writing is a weapon to fight caste discrimination and that writing itself is a political act. She says she writes because she feels it is her duty and responsibility towards the people of her caste. Bama continues to teach and does her own housework too. During school holidays, she gives talks and attends literary meets.  

Her first novel Karukku, depicts the joys and sorrows experienced by Dalit Christian women in Tamil Nadu. It has been translated into other Indian languages, English, and French. Bama has also written over 20 short stories. Her brother, Raj Gauthaman, is a renowned Dalit writer.  

Kumud Pawde

Born in 1938, into a Mahar Dalit family of Nagpur, Maharashtra, Kumud Somkuwar’s childhood was fraught with pain. Not only did they live in colonies according to caste, her classmates and teachers used to beat her at school. She has said that she never cried. Instead, she kept going back to class and went to school regularly. The other children would humiliate her when she would go to drink water. Kumud never gave up and studied diligently. Education was important in their family and both her parents were well-educated. They lived on a meagre income that her father, a pleader’s clerk, would receive when the lawyer had cases. 

Kumud’s excellent command of Sanskrit was noticed at school. She went on to study Sanskrit at college, amongst the first Dalits to do so. At the age of 18, she became a Buddhist. Her parents belonged to Babasaheb Ambedkar’s Buddhist movement. She was recommended as a fellow teacher to Motiram Pawde, who was teaching underprivileged children at night-schools. They fell in love and married, despite the opposition from both families, since he belonged to an upper caste. Motiram was a freedom fighter and followed Dr Ambedkar’s ideals.  

Kumud drew her strength from Dr Ambedkar’s message to strive for liberty or freedom – intellectual freedom and social freedom. Though she had topped her MA, she remained unemployed for many years, due to caste discrimination. It was only after her marriage that she received a job offer. In a short story, ‘The Story of my Sanskrit’, Kumud wrote, “It was Kumud Pawde who was given the job, not Kumud Somkunwar”. Her husband supported her in every way.  

Kumud was declared a Sanskrit Pandita by the Nagpur Vidyalaya and retired as the Head of Department of Sanskrit at the Government College, Amravati, Maharashtra. She became a member of the All- India Progressive Women’s movement and a founder-member of the National Federation for Dalit Women. As an activist, she campaigned vigorously for inter-caste marriages and helped facilitate 300 marriages, it is said. Her autobiography, Antahsphot, also translated into English by Maya Pandit, depicts the exploitation of Dalit women and how they suffered indignities, poverty and violence. 

Babytai Kamble

The day Baby was born into a Mahar family, in Veergaon, a village in Pune, it was thought that she was dead. Her mother begged her relatives to allow her to hold her baby till dawn, as all her other daughters had been buried at night. Baby’s eyelids fluttered in the early hours and she was alive. Thereby began an inspirational story of courage. Inspired by Dr Ambedkar’s teachings, she also admired her grandmother, Sitavahini, who had fearlessly led a revolt against the Dalit community eating dead cattle meat. Her family had converted to Buddhism.  

Her father was a labour contractor and her maternal grandfather and grand-uncles had been butlers for the British. At the age of 13, Baby was married to Kondiba Kamble. They soon opened a provision store. She gave birth to ten children, three of whom died in their childhood. This was because Dalits were denied basic medical facilities. Baby had studied only up to Grade 4 but she began to learn a lot from the newspapers she used to wrap provisions in for their customers.  

In her spare time, she began to write her thoughts in a notebook. She also joined a library.  Baby’s book, Jina Amucha (translated into English as The Prisons We Broke, 2008, by Maya Pandit), narrates not just her experiences, but the suffering of her community too. Her writing has been called ‘reflexive’ and sets her apart from other Dalit feminist writers. She once remarked in an interview: “There is a saying that a black cow can survive even on thorns. Our women were like that proverbial black cow.” Kamble was fondly called Baby tai (elder sister) with affection. She wrote deftly on what she termed ‘triple subjugation’ – gender, caste and patriarchy. Yet she hid her writing from her family for over twenty years. She also wrote poems. Feminist scholar, Maxine Bernsten, who was doing research in Phaltan, Maharashtra, encouraged her to publish her writing. Babytai wrote on patriarchy and internalized patriarchy by Dalit women. 

Babytai participated in the Mahila Mandal formed by Raja Malojiraje Nimbalkar and his wife, Lakshmi bai, in Phaltan. She also ran a government-approved residential school for children from disadvantaged and vulnerable communities, situated in Nimbure, Maharashtra. 

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–By Srinidhi Murthy

Sunil Gangopadhyay – Kakababu 

Born on 7 September 1934, Sunil Gangopadhyay was an Indian novelist and poet. He often wrote the pseudonyms Nil Lohit, Sanathan Pathak and Nil Upadhayay. The author of many short stories, novels, poems and plays, Sunil Gangopadhyay was born in Faridpur, Bengal Presidency (now in Bangladesh). He obtained his Master’s degree in Bengali from the University of Calcutta. Gangopadhyay is widely known as the author of 36 detective stories in the popular Kakababu series, where his fictional character Kakababu alias Raja Roy Chowdhury solves mysteries. Sunil Gangopadhyay wrote the Kakababu series mainly for children and teenagers. In 1979, the author wrote the first story of Kakababu titled Bhoyonkor Sundar (Fiercely Beautiful) for the Durga Puja edition in Anandamela, a magazine for children. Since then, Kakababu has attained legendary stature in Indian children’s literature. The series continued to be in demand for the next 33 years until the death of Gangopadhyay in 2012.  

Samaresh Basu – Gogol 

Samaresh Basu was born on 11 December 1924 in Bikrampur, Bengal Presidency, British India. Basu wrote his first Bengali novel titled Nayanpurer Mati (Soil of Nayanpur) at the age of 21. Since then, Samaresh Basu wrote more than 100 novels and 200 short stories in the Bengali language under the pseudonyms Kalkut and Bhromor. His most famous creation was his fictional teenage detective, Gogol. Gogol stories were targeted towards children and most of them were published in children’s magazines like Shuktara, Anandamela, etc. Many of Samaresh Basu’s novels were also adapted into movies. Some of them include Nirjan Saikate (1963), Nater Guru (2003), Bibar (2006), Goyenda Gogol (2013), and Honeymoon (2018). He won the prestigious Sahitya Akademi Award for his novel, Shamba. Basu breathed his last on 12 March 1988, at the age of 63. 

Kalpana Swaminathan – Lalli 

Born in 1956, Kalpana Swaminathan is an Indian writer and surgeon from Mumbai. She co-authors some of her works with fellow surgeon-writer Ishrat Syed as Kalpish Ratna. Swaminathan is known for creating the popular female detective character Lalli. Lalli, a retiree from Mumbai police, is in her 60s but has a youthful enthusiasm. Swaminathan portrays Lalli as an observant detective who solves crimes and mysteries using her deductive skills and is often accompanied by her niece Sita, on her adventures. The author writes her characters to relate with her readers and takes a nuanced approach to represent human relationships and psychology in her Lalli series. Swaminathan is also the winner of the 2009 Vodafone Crossword Book Award for her novel Venus Crossing: Twelve Stories of Transit. 

Devan – Thuppariyum Sambu

Mahadevan alias Devan was an Indian author who wrote his novels in Tamil. Devan was born in 1913 at Thiruvidaimarudur in Thanjavur District, Tamil Nadu. Inspired by authors like PG Wodehouse, Devan used a humorous writing style in most of his stories. Devan was the managing editor of the popular Tamil magazine, Ananda Vikatan, where he worked for 24 years. During his lifetime, Devan wrote 31 books in a plethora of genres including novels, short stories, comics, thrillers and historical fiction. He also wrote under various pseudonyms like Arem, Dasarathi, and Samabadhi. One of the popular creations of Devan is his amateur fictional detective Sambu in the novel Thuppariyum Sambu (Sambu Who Reads Clues). Sambu solves mysteries purely out of serendipity but is always seen as an intelligent detective by the police department. The short story series of Sambu is popular for its distinctive humour and was made into a television series in the late 1980s.

Hemendra Kumar Roy – Jayanta and Manik 

Born on 2 September 1888, Hemendra Kumar Roy was a Bengali writer. He was known for his contribution to the development of the genre of children’s literature in the Bengali language. Roy captured the attention of the young readers with his detective stories. He created the popular detective duo, Jayanta, and his assistant, Manik. Roy wrote around 30 stories about this private detective duo of Kolkata, who take the help of science to solve their cases. His stories introduced young readers to a world of adventure and mysteries and showed the importance of using courage with intellect and integrity. Roy wrote around 80 books for children and numerous novels, short stories, and essays for adults. He also wrote stories about another duo, Bimal and Kumar. 

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Contemporary Kannada literature, like other modern Indian literatures, was heavily influenced by nationalist movements in India, rising awareness regarding social issues, as well as western literature. Here are a few well-known writers writing in Kannada whose works are stellar examples of contemporary regional literature.  

Kuvempu 

Kuvempu, born Kuppali Venkatappa Puttappa, on 29 December 1904, is one of the most influential Kannada writers of the modern era. He was a dramatist, poet, essayist, novelist and critic. He was also a respected academic. He served as a professor of Kannada, was the principal of Maharaja College, and was also the Vice-Chancellor of Mysore University. Some of his well-known works include the poem Sri Ramayana Darshanam, a modern retelling of the epic Ramayana, which won the Jnanpith Award, the first for a Kannada writer. Girish Karnad also adapted his novel Kanuru Heggadathi into a film. In his writings, he was critical of caste-based violence, gender inequality, superstition and other social issues. Although he experimented with various forms of writing, he was most famous for his poetry. His poem ‘Jaya Bharatha Jananiya Tanujaate’ became the state anthem of Karnataka, and he was recognised as Rashtrakavi (State Poet) by the Government of Karnataka. Kuvempu passed away in 1994, at the age of 89. He was survived by his four children, one of whom was acclaimed writer, Poornachandra Tejaswi.  

U. R. Ananthamurthy

U. R. Ananthamurthy is one of the most internationally celebrated Kannada writers. He was shortlisted for The Man Booker International Prize in 2013 for his literary achievements. Ananthamuthy was born on the 21 December 1932, in Melige, Tirthali Taluk (now in Shimoga district) of Karnataka. Although he completed his education in English Literature and proceeded to have an academic career as a professor of English, he wrote primarily in Kannada. He wrote one of his most famous novels Samskara in England while he was furthering his English literature studies there. Some of his other popular works include the novels Avaste, Mouni, Sookha, Ghatashraddha and Diksha. In his work, he was extensively against religious orthodoxy and was known to write about the psychology of people and the various socio-political forces at play that lead people to act in certain ways. In addition to being a writer and academic, he was also a politician, having contested in both Lok Sabha and Rajya Sabha elections from the state. He passed away in 2014 due to complications of the kidney and heart. His son-in-law Vivek Shanbag, most famous for his novel Ghachar Ghochar, is also a Kannada writer. 

Triveni 

Triveni was the pen name of writer Anasuya Shankar. She was born on 1 September 1928 in Mysore. It is widely believed that she took the name Triveni to honour Mahatma Gandhi, as his ashes were immersed in the Triveni Sangam (confluence of the rivers Ganga, Yamuna, and Saraswati). In her lifetime, she published around 20 novels and three collections of short stories. Her stories were revolutionary as they dealt with female subjects and explored the psychology and inner lives of women. She belonged to a family of illustrious writers. Her uncle, B. M. Srikantaiah, her cousin, Vani, and sister, Arayamba Pattabhi, were all writers. Her novels Belli Moda and Sharapanjara have been made into feature films. Some of her other novels include Sotu Geddavalu, Kashi Yatre, and Doorada Betta. She was awarded the Karnataka Sahitya Academy Award for her work Tavariya Kola in 1960. In 1963, her flourishing career was cut short at the early age of 34 due to a pulmonary embolism, mere days after giving birth. Presently, her house in Mysore is in the process of being converted into a heritage museum in her memory.  

Siddalingaiah 

Siddalingaiah, born on 3 February 1954, was a Kannada writer, professor, social activist and politician, who served as the Head of the Department of Kannada at Bangalore University. He was also a Member of the Karnataka Legislative Council, serving two terms. He was also one of the founders of the Dalit-Bandaya movement. The Bandaya movement is a progressive literary movement that promoted socially conscious literature and aimed to tackle issues through poetry and literature. Some of Siddalingaiah’s famous poetry include Holemadigara Hadu and Saaviraaru Nadigalu. His poetry is hard-hitting and scathingly criticises caste oppression. Several of his poems and songs are sung at protests and demonstrations. He was also a great prose writer. Siddalingaiah passed away on 11 June 2021 in Bengaluru, due to COVID-19-related complications. To recognise his contributions to literature, the Karnataka Government presented him with the Rajyotsava Award in 1986 and the Pampa Prashasti (the state’s highest literary award) in 2019. He was posthumously granted the Padma Shri for his contributions to Education and Literature in 2022.  

Girish Karnad 

Girish Karnad was an Indian playwright, author, actor and film director. He wrote his most famous play Yayati in 1961, while studying philosophy, economics and politics at the University of Oxford. His next play was Tughluq, centered around the life of the 14th-century ruler Muhammad bin Tughluq. He entered films as a dialogue writer and actor with the 1970 film Samskara (based on U. R. Ananthamauthy’s novel). Despite donning several hats, Karnad is best known for his plays. His first play, Yayati, explores the character of King Yayati from the epic Mahabharata. The play, although about a mythological king, critiques modern human beings and the futility of our lives as we focus on unchecked material desires. Karnad continued to use historical and mythological settings and characters to critique contemporary issues throughout his career. Translations of his plays into English and other regional languages earned him a national and international reputation. His contributions to literature and theatre were rewarded with the Padma Shri in 1974, the Padma Bhushan in 1992, and the Jnanpith Award in 1999.  

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Ghazal is an ancient form of poetry, the origins of which can be traced back to 7th century Arabic poetry. In India, many poets have enchanted audiences with their soul-soothing ghazals. Here are some such ghazal writers known for producing memorable lyrics for which they will be remembered forever.

Mirza Ghalib (1797-1869)

Born on 27 December 1797 in Agra, Mirza Asadullah Baig Khan was known by his pen name, Ghalib. Mirza Ghalib is remembered for his Shayaris (couplets) that he wrote in Urdu, though he wrote in both, Urdu and Persian. He was born during the decline of the Mughal Empire. During his lifetime, he also witnessed the rise of the British East India Company and the First War of Indian Independence (in 1857). He later described these historical events in his work. Ghalib was commemorated by Google on its Indian home page with a special doodle on his 220th birth anniversary in 2017. One of Ghalib’s most famous couplets is –

Ishq ne Ghalib nikamma kar diya, varna hum bhi aadmi the kaam ke.

Dil-e-naadaan tujhe huaa kya hai? Aakhir iss dard ki dawa kya hai? 

Dushyant Kumar (1931-1975)

Born on 1 September 1931, Dushyant Kumar is considered one of the foremost Hindi poets of the 20th century. Some of his notable works include – Saaye Mein Dhoop, Maan Ke Kon, and Ek Kanth Vishpayi. Lines from his ghazals have been used in popular Hindi movies, shows and songs. On 27th September 2009, the Indian Department of Post issued a commemorative stamp with his image in his honour. A famous line from Saaye mein Dhoop is – 

Mere seene mein nahi to tere seene me sahi, ho kahin bhi aag, lekin aag jalni chahiye.

Sahir Ludhianvi (1921-1980)

Born on 8 March 1921, Abdul Hayee was known by his pen name, Sahir Ludhianvi. He was born into a Muslim landlord family at Karimpura, Ludhiana, Punjab. In Ludhiana, he was educated at Khalsa High School and then studied at the Government College. Even in his college days, he was popular for his ghazals and poetry in Urdu. In 1943, Ludhianvi settled in Lahore, where he published his first book, Talkhiyaan  in Urdu. In 1949, he moved to India where he first spent his two months in Delhi and then moved to Mumbai. His works as a lyricist in the Hindi film Industry won him two Filmfare awards for Taj Mahal (1963) and Kabhie Kabhie (1976). Some popular lines from his well-known ghazals include “Kabhi khud pe kabhi halat pe rona aaya” and “Chehre pe khushi chha jati hai.“ On his 92nd birth-anniversary, a commemorative stamp was issued in his honour in 2013, by the then-President Pranab Mukherjee. 

Nida Fazli (1938-2016)

Muqtida Hasan Nida Fazli, known as Nida Fazli, was an Indian poet, dialogue-writer and lyricist. Known for his ghazals such as Hoshwalon ko khabar kya and Kiska chehra ab main dekhu, Nida Fazli was born in 1938 into a Kashmiri family in Delhi. He grew up in Gwalior, where he studied English literature. Fazli decided to stay back in India after his family decided to move to Pakistan in 1965. He started writing in Dharmayug – a Hindi weekly and Blitz – a popular weekly magazine, during the early days of his career. His poetic style attracted the attention of many writers of Urdu and Hindi literature. Nida Fazli became a well-known poet among the ghazal readers and singers for his use of colloquial language in ghazals. He also collaborated with the popular ghazal singer, Jagjit Singh, for an album called Insight, in 1994. He was honoured with the National Harmony Award for writing on the subject of communal harmony.

Javed Akhtar (Born 1945)

Javed Akhtar is an Indian poet and lyricist known for his work in Hindi cinema. Born on 17 January 1945, Akhtar is the son of Urdu poet and Bollywood lyricist Jan Nisar Akhtar and singer-writer Safia Akhtar. Javed Akhtar was schooled in Lucknow and graduated from Saifiya College in Bhopal. His original name was Jaddo, taken from a line in his father’s poem. Some notable lines from his ghazals are  “Jidhar jate sab jana udhar accha nahi lagta” and “Bahana dhundte rahte hai koi rone ka.“ Javed Akhtar received two of the highest civilian honours of India – Padma Shri in 1999 and Padma Bhushan in 2007. Apart from being a social activist and member of the Rajya Sabha, he is also a recipient of the Sahitya Akademi Award. Akhtar has also won five National Film Awards and eight Filmfare Awards for his lyrics.

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Natyasangeet or Sangeet Natak are Marathi language musical dramas, which combine prose, poetry and music to convey a story. This form of musical theatre has its origins in 19th century Maharashtra and soon became a popular form of entertainment for the common man. Most of the plays in the initial days would be based on mythological stories from the Mahabharata and Ramayana. However, with time, these plays also evolved to include historical and social messages. While there have been numerous musical maestros who contributed to the growth and development of this cultural phenomenon, there are three men who stand out as pioneers.

Bal Gandharva

Bal Gandharva, born Narayan Shripad Rajhans, was the Natsamrat or King of Theatre of Marathi musical theatre for nearly half a century. Born to a common Maharashtrian family in June 1888, he was graced with a melodious voice. Young Narayanrao began singing bhajans (devotional songs) from a tender age. It was in one such singing performance in Pune that a member of the awed audience, Lokmanya Tilak, the great social reformer and freedom fighter bestowed upon young Narayan the name ‘Bal Gandharva’ or a ‘Young Celestial Musician.’

Bal Gandharva joined the Kirloskar Natak Mandali at the age of seventeen. His first performance was a female role in the Marathi version of the Sanskrit play ‘Shakuntala’. He acted in several plays – from classic to contemporary themes, almost exclusively playing female roles. His second marriage, after the untimely death of his first wife, was to a Muslim singer named Gauhar Bai, extremely progressive for that day and age. He acted in several anti-colonial plays as well during the course of his career. 

He was proclaimed the ‘Natsamrat’ in 1944, and elected president of the Marathi Natya Shatabdi Sammelan, a conference commemorating the centenary of the Marathi Theatre. In 1955, he was given the Central Sangeet Natak Akademi award and the Padma Bhushan in 1964.

Though, time could not be at a standstill. As Bal Gandharva become older and women were no longer shunned from the stage, he had to move onto more mainstream entertainment: the film industry. He dabbled in the movies, but eventually returned to the stage after a few flops. Though he founded a flourishing company, the Gandharva Natak Mandali, he remained in debt due to the extravagance of the theatrical world. He suffered through a lot of grief, losing three of his children, and a paralytic shock in 1952. Bal Gandharva had been paralysed ever since, struggling and virtually penniless. He died on 15th July, 1967.

The Bal Gandharva Rang Mandir was built in his honour in Pune in 1968, and it still flourishes to this day, furthering Bal Gandharva’s legacy.

Deenanath Mangeshkar

Deenanath Mangeshkar’s mercurial style and resonant voice made him one of the biggest voices on the Marathi musical scene. His distinctive musical legacy has never been replicated. Deenanath was born in what is now modern-day Goa, in a small village called Mangeshi, to a Karhade Brahmin priest and a Devadasi, Yesubai. In his teen years, he christened himself again as ‘Mangeshkar’, as a homage to the place he was born in, and to the deity of the Mangueshi temple, also called Mangesh. 

From the age of five, young Deenanath began taking singing lessons from Shri Baba Mashelkar and later joined the Gwalior school. He was inspired by the variety and aggressive style of Gayanacharya Pandit Ramkrishnabua Vaze. He travelled to Bikaner for his formal training, under Pandit Sukhdev Prasad. He joined the Kirloskar Sangeet Mandali and the Kirloskar Natak Mandali at the age of 11, leaving it shortly after and founding his own Balwant Mandali. 

Deenanath’s musical voraciousness and winning features resulted in him becoming immensely popular on the Marathi stage.  The element of surprise in his arrangement of note-patterns fascinated theatre-goers.

Deenanath’s versatility expressed itself in his voice and plays. Dramas produced by Deenanath Mangeshkar were always resonant with nationalism and patriotic in nature. He worked with writers like K.P. Khadilkar, Veer Vamanrao Joshi and Veer Savarkar.  Some of his most patriotic works include Manapaman, Ranadundubhi and Sanyasta Khadga.

Deenanath fathered Lata, Meena, Asha, Usha and Hridaynath Mangeshkar, who became the first family of Marathi and Hindi film music. 

In the years of financial hardship and creative discontent in the 1930s, Deenanath began drinking heavily. He breathed his last in Pune, 1942, only 42 years old. The Mangeshkar family has established a hospital and research centre in Pune, the Deenanath Mangeshkar Hospital, in his memory. 

Vasantrao Deshpande

Vasantrao Deshpande is a household name in most of Maharashtra now, but this musical maestro could have very easily vanished into the haze that then surrounded the theatrical world. Born in 1920 to a Deshastha Brahmin family in Murtizapur, in the Vidharba region of Maharashtra, Vasantrao was exposed to the Marathi devotional songs that his mother sang from the early years of his childhood.

Though he had an exceptionally sweet voice, it was entirely by chance that he was discovered by Shankarrao Sapre, a local music teacher after his mother relocated them to Nagpur. He began learning music, and within four years had landed the role of Krishna in the 1933 film ‘Kaliya-Mardan.’ In Kolhapur, where the film was shot, Vasantrao discovered artists big and small, all of which served as an inspiration to him. Deenanath Mangeshkar, the star of the theatrical world at the time, even took the young Vasantrao under his tutelage. 

Vasantrao imbibed all of their styles into his own, and he is to date the sole inheritor of Deenanath’s Mangeshkar’s mercurial musical flair. Vasantrao never stuck by a particular gharana, or music lineage, though he was initially trained by the Gwalior Gharana. He absorbed the good qualities of every gharana that he came across. He stayed in Lahore with his uncle for a short period of time, and it was here that his colourful style truly evolved.

He passed the matriculation exam and landed a job as a civil servant in Pune in 1941, which though highly unsatisfactory to the artist, provided him with financial security. Though he did not pursue music as a career for several more years, he built up a social circle in Pune comprising fellow music lovers and pursued his learning under different gurus. 

The favour of Hyderabad’s Begum Akhtar was one of the most influential turning points for Vasantrao, and it was due to her support and insistence that Vasantrao finally started pursuing music full time in 1966. Though the initial years were difficult, he met with great success and respect. His most memorable role was that of the ‘Khansaheb’ in the play Katyar Kaljat Ghusli, which catapulted him into stardom. This role is still retained by his grandson and contemporary classical singer Rahul Deshpande. 

Vasantrao had coronary issues in the 1980s, and though he lived long enough to receive the prestigious Sangeet Natak Akademi award, he died on 30th July, 1983, at 63 years old. The Vasantotsav, an annual musical festival organised in his honour in Pune, is spread over three days in January. 

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The Modern Bengali Literature Era (i.e. post-1800), gave birth to numerous classic novels, biographies, religious texts and various poetic genres. Here is the list of some authors from Bengal, who will always be remembered for pioneering this golden period of Bengali literature.

Rassundari Devi (1809-1899)

Rassundari Devi was the first Bengali author to write an autobiography. Her book, titled Aamar Jiban (My Life), was published in two parts, the first part in 1876 and the second, in 1906. Born in 1809, Rassundari Devi was raised by her widowed mother. As a child, she learnt the Bengali alphabets by repeating what was taught in the boys’ school that was held in her house. At the young age of 12, Rassundari Devi became a child bride. She learnt to read by herself post-marriage, due to her desire to read Chaitanya Bhagavatha. Rassundari Devi was the first woman in Bengali literature to write about topics such as her hardships as a child bride, the difficulties she endured to gain literacy and the experiences of her pregnancy and childbirth. She wrote about her experiences in a time when speaking about these issues was considered taboo for women. Her life is an inspirational tale of a woman who fought against all odds to fulfil her desire for literacy.

Peary Chand Mitra (1814-1883)

Born in Calcutta in 1814, Peary Chand Mitra is known for his contribution to the development of Bangla literature and Journalism in Bengal. His most noted novel, Alaler Gharer Dulal (The Spoilt Child) was published in 1857, under the pseudonym Tek Chand Thakur. This was one of the earliest Bengali novels and Mitra wrote it in colloquial language i.e. cholitobhasa, instead of using a formal literary style. His simple prose style was later also used by notable writers like Bankim Chandra Chatterjee. This colloquial form and style later came to be known as the Alali language. At a young age, Mitra learnt Persian and he started to learn English only when he joined Hindu College in 1827. He was a regular contributor to Bengali weekly newspapers such as Hindu Patriot, Calcutta Review, Bengal Spectator and Bengal Harkara. Notable Bangla literary works of Mitra include Alaler Gharer Dulal (1857), Mad Khaoya Bada Day Jat Thakar ki Upay (1859), Krispath (1861) and Abhedi (1871). Peary Chand Mitra breathed his last on 23 November, 1883, in Calcutta.

Girish Chandra Ghosh (1844-1912)

Girish Chandra Ghosh was a Bengali writer, director and actor. He was credited with being responsible for the beginning of the golden era of Bengali Theatre. Girish Chandra was born in Bagbazar, Calcutta, on 28 February, 1844, as the eighth child to his parents. He left school in 1862, after he lost both of his parents and got an apprenticeship in book-keeping with a British Company. During this time, he was introduced to the works of Ishwar Chandra Gupta and started writing songs, poems and plays. Ghosh wrote around 80 plays on religious, social and historical themes. Some of his famous works include Sitaharan (1882), Chaitanyalila (1884), Validan (1904), Chatrapati Shivaji (1907) and Sankaracharya (1910). In 1893, he also translated Shakespeare’s Macbeth in Bangla. Girish Chandra Ghosh was the author of a  large number of Bangla plays and his lifelong association with the theatre contributed immensely to the development of Bengali theatre. 

Nabinchandra Sen (1847-1909)

Considered one of the greatest poets and writers of Bengal, Nabinchandra Sen is known for popularising the epic narrative of the Mahabharata in Bengali language, with his three-volume series – Raivataka (1887), Kurukshetra (1893) and Prabhas (1896). Born in Noapara, Chittagong, on 10 February, 1847, Nabinchandra earned his BA degree from General Assembly’s Institution – presently the Scottish Church College. In 1871, his first volume of poetry, named Abakash Ranjani, was published, followed by the second volume in 1877. Nabinchandra wrote the biographies of Buddha, Cleopatra and Jesus Christ in Bengali and translated verses of the Markandeya Purana and Bhagavad Gita. His five-volume autobiography, Amar Jiban (My Life), documented not only the politics and administration of his time, but also the social aspirations of the educated class in contemporary Bengal society. Nabinchandra Sen died on 23 January, 1909.

Swarnakumari Devi (1855-1932)

Born in Calcutta on 28 August, 1855, Swarnakumari Devi was the first female Bengali novelist to gain prominence. She was the elder sister of Rabindranath Tagore and was fourth among the daughters of Debandranath Tagore. Swarnakumari Devi was primarily educated at home and she married the well-educated Janakinath Ghoshal in 1868. Eight years after her marriage, Swarnakumari Devi published her first novel, Deep Nirban (The Snuffing out of Light), which evoked the nationalist spirit. She composed the first Bengali opera, Basanta Utsav, in 1879. In 1896, Swarnakumari Devi started an organisation named Sakhi Samiti, which not only provided shelter but also education to women, especially widows and orphans. She worked as the first female editor of Bharati, a magazine started by Jyotirindranath Tagore. Author of many novels, poems, novels, essays and plays, the life of Swarnakumari Devi will always be remembered not only for her contribution to Bengali literature but also for her role as an activist who fought for women’s liberation.

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Kiran Desai is an acclaimed Indian author, who has achieved international fame with her award-winning books. She was born in India in 1971 to author Anita Desai and Ashvin Desai, a writer and the director of a software company. Desai lived in India for fourteen years before moving to England. 

Her first novel, Hullabaloo in the Guava Orchard, was well received by critics and won the Betty Trask Award in 1998. Set in a small town in India, the book follows Sampath Chawla, an eccentric young man who seeks to break away from the mundanity of life and find freedom in nature. This novel delves into themes of modernity, tradition, mundanity, freedom and the power of imagination.

It was, however, Desai’s second novel, The Inheritance of Loss, which cemented her name as one of the leading Indian writers of current times and brought on comparisons to other acclaimed literary figures like Arundhati Roy and Salman Rushdie. This novel, which came out in 2006, won the Man Booker Prize for Fiction as well as the National Book Critics Circle Fiction Award that year. Inspired by Desai’s own experience of immigration and globalisation, The Inheritance of Loss depicts the far-reaching consequences of colonialism, through interconnecting stories of a retired Judge, his love-struck granddaughter, an old cook, an illegal immigrant in New York and a fundamentalist tutor– all in the small town of Kalimpong. 

Today, Desai is one of the best selling Indian-origin authors globally and has collected many more awards and accolades over the years. She was awarded the prestigious Berlin Prize Fellowship at the American Academy in Berlin in 2013 and was listed as one of the 20 most influential global Indian women by the Economic Times in 2015. 

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Maharashtra has a rich culture of literature and arts. It has been the birthplace of many legendary names, from the Bhakti poets like Dnyaneshwar and Chokhamela to playwrights like Kusumagraj and filmmakers like Dadasaheb Phalke. While Marathi Sahitya is full of great authors and phenomenal works, here is a list of some important authors whose works are still regarded as some of the best in the field of literature.

Vijay Tendulkar

Vijay Tendulkar is one of the most prominent names in modern Indian playwriting. His plays revolve around contemporary social issues and were often inspired by real incidents from the time. He employed many experimental as well as native techniques in his plays. A recurring theme in a lot of his works is violence, be it political or personal. He is best known for the plays Ghashiram Kotwal and Shantata! Court Chalu Aahe, which was also made into a film in Marathi. Apart from being a playwright, Tendulkar also wrote screenplays, novels and short stories. He was honoured with the Padma Bhushan in the year 1984.

Purushottam Laxman Deshpande

Popularly known as Pu La Deshpande or even just Pu La, Deshpande is one of the most iconic authors of Marathi literature. He wrote in different styles and across genres, but he was most loved for his humourous works. Apart from his literary achievements, he was also an actor, singer, musician and composer. He was awarded the Padma Shri in 1966 and the Padma Bhushan in 1990. To honour his invaluable contributions to Marathi Literature, the Government of Maharashtra instituted the P. L. Deshpande Maharashtra Kala Academy in 2002.

Anant Pai, the founder-editor of Amar Chitra Katha, was a student of Deshpande from when he worked as an English teacher early in his life, at Orient High School, Mahim.

Irawati Karve

Irawati Karve was an anthropologist, educationist and writer whose work is largely academic and based on the study of Maharashtrian culture. She was the daughter-in-law of social reformer Dhondo Keshav Karve. Her most well-known book is Yuganta: The End of an Epoch. The book is an in-depth analysis of the Mahabharata by interpreting it as a historical rather than a mythological text, and using the information to draw conclusions about the social, cultural and political life in India during that time. The book won the Sahitya Akademi Award in 1968. Her other works include Aamchi Sanskruti, Bhovara, Paripurti, Gangajal and many more.

Dagdu Maruti Pawar

Dagdu Maruti Pawar, better known as Daya Pawar, was a trailblazer in the Marathi literature scene of his time. Credited as the author of what is considered the first autobiography in Dalit Literature, his novel Baluta brought him praise as well as awards. The story of his sufferings as an untouchable is narrated by the young Dagdu Pawar to his older self, the more educated Daya Pawar. The book inspired a wave of autobiographical writing in Marathi, giving voice to many who had similar experiences to share. Pawar was also a brilliant poet. His poems reflected how troubled he was by the personal, political and social circumstances that surrounded him. He was awarded the Padma Shri in the year 1990.

Shivaji Sawant

The greatness of Shivaji Sawant’s work is perhaps best reflected by the fact that he came to be known as Mrutyunjaykaar, after his most popular novel Mrutyunjay. The novel is based on the life of Karna, one of the most controversial and intriguing characters from the Mahabharata. Mrutyunjay is regarded as one of the best works in Marathi literature, and was translated to multiple languages. His other popular works include Chhava, which dealt with the life of Chhatrapati Sambhaji Maharaj, and Yugandhar, based on the life of Krishna. Sawant was the first Marathi author to receive the Moortidevi Award, presented by the Bharatiya Jnanpith, in 1994.

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