Archives: history

By Srinidhi Murthy

Known for its tea and silk, Assam is located in the northeastern part of India. The state is bordered by Manipur and Nagaland to the east, Arunachal Pradesh and Bhutan to the north, West Bengal to the west and Tripura and Mizoram to the south. Read more to know about the history of Assam.

Ancient times

Assam was ruled by several dynasties such as Varman, Koch, Kachari, Chutiya and Pala from the 4th century to the 19th century. The earliest mention of Assam can be found during the formation of the Varman dynasty by Pushyavarman in the Kamarupa kingdom, in the 4th century. Kamarupa was the first historical kingdom of Assam. The Varman dynasty reached its zenith in the 7th century, under the rule of Bhaskaravarman. The rise of individual kingdoms such as Kachari and Chutia or Sadiya, marked the end of the Varman dynasty in the 12th century. The name Assam is derived from the word ‘asama’, meaning ‘peerless’ in the now extinct Ahom language. Ahom was spoken by the Ahoms, the rulers who came to Assam in 1228. The Ahom dynasty ruled the region for nearly 600 years from 1228 to 1826. In the 16th century, the Ahoms annexed the Chutia kingdom and also took over the Kachari kingdom from Central Assam. 

Colonial Era

The region witnessed the Burmese invasion between 1817 and 1826. There were three invasions from 1821 to 1825, during which the Ahom kingdom came under the control of Burma. In 1824, the first Anglo-Burmese war, also known as the First Burma War, was fought between the British and Burmese empires. By 1825, the British emerged victorious and the Burmese empire lost authority in Assam. As per the Treaty of Yandabo, the Burmese monarch, Bagyidaw, renounced his claim to Assam. In 1826, the British started commercial tea cultivation in Assam after they discovered that the region had favourable climatic conditions which could help them rival China in tea production. Cachar (present-day district in Assam) was annexed by the British in 1832 and Jaintia Hills ( present-day West Jaintia Hills district in Meghalaya) in 1835. Soon, Assam became a separate province in 1874, with Shillong as its capital.

The Freedom Struggle

Two years after the Treaty of Yandaboo, Gomdhar Konwar, a prince of the Ahom royal family, revolted against the British in 1828. He was soon suppressed. His followers, Dhananjoy Burhagohain, Jiuram Medhi, and Piyali Phukanrose revolted in 1830. Unfortunately, they were arrested and sentenced to death. In the early 20th century, the anti-colonial Assamese actively supported the Indian National Congress against the British rule in India, with Gopinath Bordoloi emerging as the preeminent nationalist leader in the Assam. Assamese women like Hemanta Kumari Devi Bordoloi, Nalinibala Devi, Bijuli Phukan, and Kiranmayee Agarwalla, also participated in every phase of the freedom movement. They were active participants in the Non-Cooperation Movement in 1920-21, the Civil Disobedience Movement in 1930 and the Quit India Movement in 1942. 

Post Independence

Post Independence, the Naga Hills, renamed Nagaland, became the 16th state of India in 1963. In 1970, the districts containing the Khasi Hills, Jaintia Hills, and Garo Hills were formed into an autonomous state within Assam. In 1972, it became a separate state under the name of Meghalaya. Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh were separated from Assam as union territories in 1972 and both became states in 1986. 

Wildlife, Culture and Tourism 

Assam is a home to the one-horned Indian rhinoceros, along with the wild water buffalo, tiger and various species of Asiatic birds. The state also provides one of the last wild habitats for the Asian elephant. Assam’s economy is aided by wildlife tourism to Kaziranga National Park and Manas National Park, which are World Heritage Sites. Bihu, a series of three harvest festivals, is the most important traditional festival, celebrated three times a year all over Assam. Assam has produced many authors, poets, activists and politicians including Fakhruddin Ali Ahmed, who served as the fifth President of India, from 1974 to 1977.

By Srinidhi Murthy

Andhra Pradesh is the seventh-largest Indian state by area. The state is bordered by Tamil Nadu to the south, Chhattisgarh to the north, the Bay of Bengal to the east and Karnataka to the west. It has witnessed the reigns of many dynasties and many freedom fighters from the region sacrificed their lives for our nation.

Early mentions

The earliest mention of Andhra Pradesh was as a name of a tribe found in Sanskrit texts such as Aitareya Brahmana. The region was mentioned as Dakshinapatha and the people by the name Andhras. The other references were found in Indian epics such as Ramayana and Mahabharata. During his exile, Rama, with his wife Sita and brother Lakshmana, is said to have lived in the forest, situated in present-day Bhadrachalam, Telangana. In  Mahabharata, Rukmini was the princess of the Vidarbha Kingdom. Vidharbha included the Deccan Plateau, parts of present-day Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Madhya Pradesh. Megasthenese, who visited the court of Chandragupta Maurya (322–297), mentioned in his report that Andhras had 30 fortified towns near the Godavari river, 2,000 cavalries, 1,000 elephants and an army of 1,00,000 infantry. 

The Kakatiya dynasty

In the 12th and 13th centuries, Andhras witnessed the rise of the Kakatiya dynasty. The Kakatiya period was considered the golden era of the region. Ganapati Deva of the Kakatiya dynasty, who started his reign in 1199, was considered to be the greatest ruler of Kakatiyas. In 1210, he defeated the Velanati Cholas and forced them to accept his dominance. His daughter Rudhrama Devi succeeded him in 1262. She defended her kingdom against the Cholas and Seuna Yadavas dynasty. Her grandson Prataparudra expanded the kingdom west to Raichur (present-day district in Karnataka) and south to Ongole (present-day city in Prakasam district, Andhra Pradesh)  and to Kanchipuram (present-day city in Tamil Nadu). Unfortunately, the decline of the Kakatiya dynasty began when they were defeated by the Delhi Sultanate in 1323. 

Changing times

After the fall of Kakatiyas, uncertainty prevailed over the region for some time. Several dynasties such as Musunuri Nayakas and the Reddi came and rose to power for the next three centuries. In 1687, Mughal emperor Aurangzeb annexed Golconda and appointed a Nizam (governor). The Mughal Nizams controlled the region for nearly 35 years. In 1707, following the death of Aurangazeb, the Mughal dynasty began to decline. The decline of the Mughal empire paved the way for the British East India Company and the French East India Company in India. 

Under the Colonial Rule 

In 1753, Deccan subedar Asif ad-Dawlah Mir Ali Salabat Jang, surrendered Chicacole (present-day Srikakulam), Ellore and Rajahmundry, to the Marquis de Bussy-Castelnau, who later became the Governor-General of the French colony of Pondicherry. In 1758, the French and English fought at Chandurthi (present-day Gollaprolu town in East Godavari district). The French troops were defeated by the British in the battle. Following the French defeat, the Deccan subedar made a peace treaty with the British and gave them the Northern Circars (also spelt Sarkar, a Mughal term for the province ) in a firman. Firman was a royal mandate issued by a sovereign in an Islamic state. The Northern Circars consisted of the five regions of Chicacole (Srikakulam), Rajahmundry, Eluru, Guntur, and Kondapalli. The Nizams retained control of the interior provinces as a princely state by acknowledging British rule, in return for local autonomy.

Freedom Struggle Movements 

The region was part of the nation’s fight to get freedom from the shackles of foreign rule. Prominent rebellions in the early 19th and 20th centuries were the revolts in Rayalaseema in 1800, by people who had refused to accept the British authority, and the No Tax campaign in the villages of Cherala and Perala in 1919. In 1920, Non-Cooperation Movement was welcomed and had huge support in Andhra Pradesh due to the leaders like Konda Venkatappayya (1866-1948), Ayyadevara Kaleswara Rao (1882-1962), Tanguturi Prakasam (1872-1957), and Pattabhi Sitaramayya (1880-1959). Alluri Seetharama Raju (1897-1924), a freedom fighter, carried out his Rampa Rebellion, a tribal uprising, between the years 1921-1924, against the British Government. He also fought with his followers in Guerrilla warfare to overthrow the rule of the British from the Eastern Ghats region of India. 

Post Independence 

India became independent from the rule of the British Empire in 1947. Though the Nizam of Hyderabad showed his resistance initially, he later surrendered his state to India in 1948. In 1953, Andhra State was separated from the Madras Presidency and became the first state in India to be formed on a linguistic basis. In 1956, Andhra State was merged with Hyderabad State to form the new state, Andhra Pradesh. In 2014, Andhra Pradesh was reorganised again to form a separate state of Telangana. Currently, the state ranks 27th among Indian states in the Human Development Index (HDI) and has the nation’s 17th highest Gross State Domestic Product (GSDP) per capita.

Places to Visit

Andhra Pradesh has many tourist sites including beaches, hills and caves that can be explored. Visakhapatnam has the Borra caves, Arasavalli temple, Submarine Museum and the Bheemunipatnam Beach which can be visited. Tirupati is famous for the Tirumala Venkateswara Swamy Temple and Chandragiri fort. Amaravati in Guntur District, has some great architectural sites to explore such as the Dhyan Buddha statue and Amareswara (Siva) temple. Srisailam Dam, Akka Mahadevi Caves and Sri Mallikarjuna Swamy Temple are some of the popular tourist destinations in Srisailam. Vijayawada is popular for having the largest railway junction in South India and the city is known for its mangoes and beautiful spring season. Kondapalli Fort, Mogalarajapuram Caves and St. Mary’s Church are some of the popular tourist destinations in Vijayawada.

By Srinidhi Murthy 

Formed as an Indian state on November 1, 1973, Karnataka is the sixth largest state by area and the eighth largest by population. It has been home to many empires of ancient and medieval India including the mighty Vijayanagara empire. The history of the state has given it so many monuments, traditions and stories to tell.

Age of empires

Karnataka has witnessed the reigns of many well-known dynasties. The region was a part of the Nanda empire before the third century and then came under the control of Ashoka, the ruler of the Mauryan empire. Later, it was ruled by the Satavahana dynasty for four centuries. It has also witnessed the rise and fall of many dynasties including the Kadamba, Western Ganga and Hoysala, in the following centuries. The age of Hoysalas (10th – 14th century) was an important period in its development in the field of architecture, literature, and arts. Well-known temples such as the Chennakesava Temple, Somnathpur, Belur, the Hoysaleswara Temple and Halebidu are great surviving examples, which show the architectural talents of the Hoysalas. The Hoysala rulers were also patrons of fine arts and encouraged Kannada and Sanskrit literature to flourish during their rule.

The Vijayanagara empire

During the early 14th century, the region witnessed the rise of the Vijayanagara empire. Harihara I and Bukka Raya I founded the Vijayanagara empire with Hosapattana (later renamed Vijayanagara) as its capital, on the banks of the Tungabhadra river, in the present-day Bellary district. It was under the rule of Krishnadevaraya, who reigned from 1509 to 1529, that art, literature, and architecture flourished in the region. Many Telugu, Sanskrit, Tamil and Kannada poets enjoyed the patronage of the king, who himself was fluent in many languages. Unfortunately, the death of Aliya Rama Raya, the son-in-law of Krishna Deva Raya, during the battle of Talikota in 1565, against the alliance of Delhi Sultanates, led to the decline of the Vijayanagara empire and the destruction of Hampi. The example of Vijayanagara architecture can be still seen today in the ruins of Hampi. 

Anglo-Mysore War

Following the defeat of the Vijayanagara Empire in 1565, the Bijapur Sultanate rose as the main power in the Deccan. Soon, they were also defeated by the Mughal rulers in the late 17th century. The Wodeyars of Mysore, former vassals of the Vijayanagara Empire, leased the state from Aurangzeb, the Mughal emperor in the 17th century. After the death of Krishnaraja Wodeyar II, Haidar Ali, the commander-in-chief of the Mysore army, gained control of the region. To prevent European expansion in South India, Haidar Ali and later his son, Tipu Sultan, fought four significant Anglo-Mysore Wars. The last Anglo-Mysore war resulted in the death of Tipu Sultan and Mysore was finally annexed to the British Raj in 1799. 

Freedom fighters 

When the East India Company introduced the Doctrine of Lapse, many revolutionaries from the region like Kittur Rani Chennamma and Sangolli Rayanna started their rebellions in 1830, nearly three decades before the revolt of 1857. The Revolt of 1857, also known as the First War of Independence, was led by revolutionaries such as Mundargi Bhimarao, Bhaskar Rao Bhave, the Halagali Bedas, Raja Venkatappa Nayaka and others. By the end of the 19th century, the freedom movement had gained momentum all over the nation. Karnad Sadashiva Rao, Aluru Venkata Raya, S. Nijalingappa, Kengal Hanumanthaiah, Nittoor Srinivasa Rau and others from the state, carried on the freedom struggle into the early 20th century.

Post Independence

After the independence, the Wodeyar Maharaja acceded to India. In 1950, Mysore became an Indian state, and the former Maharaja performed his role as its governor until 1975. According to the States Reorganization Act of 1956, parts of Coorg, Madras, Hyderabad, and Bombay states were incorporated into the state of Mysore. On 1 November, 1956, the state of Mysore was formed and since then every year, 1 November is celebrated as Karnataka Rajyotsava Day. In 1973, Mysore state was renamed Karnataka. 

Notable people

The state produced many artists, authors, historians, social workers and Bharat Ratna recipients who provided their valuable contributions to the development of the society. Some of the notable people from Karnataka in the Republic India are C.B. Muthamma, the first Indian woman IFS officer, Shakuntala Devi, popularly known as the Human Calculator, Tirumalai Krishnamacharya, also known as the Father of Modern Yoga. Karnataka has also produced archaeologists such as Shikaripura Ranganatha Rao, who led teams that discovered a number of Harappan sites including the port city Lothal and Bet Dwarka in Gujarat, and Paduru Gururaja Bhat, an archaeologist of the Tulu kingdom. Bharat Ratna recipients, Sir M.Visvesvaraya, Pandit Bhimsen Gururaj Joshi, and Chintamani Nagesa Ramachandra Rao (C.N.R. Rao), for their contributions in the fields of engineering, music and science respectively, were also from Karnataka.

Economic and Tourist destinations

During the early 1900s, industrial visionaries such as Sir Mokshagundam Visvesvarraya played a crucial role in building a strong manufacturing and industrial base in Karnataka. Currently, the state has the nineteenth highest ranking among Indian states on the Human Development Index (HDI). It has the sixth-largest economy of any Indian state and is the manufacturing hub for some of the largest Indian public sector industries including National Aerospace Laboratories, Hindustan Aeronautics Limited and Bharat Earth Movers Limited, which are headquartered in Bangalore. It also has many tourist places to visit such as Jog Falls, Mysore Palace, Nandi Hills, Hampi and Lalbagh Botanical Gardens.