As one of the five fundamental practices of Islam, Muslims across the world observe a month of fasting, praying and service to society. Ramzan, or Ramadan, is the ninth month of the Islamic calendar, during which adult, able and healthy Muslims are expected to fast from sunrise to sundown and refrain from activities that are considered sinful. The month is observed for 29 or 30 days according to the Lunar calendar, so the date shifts by about 11 days every year. The beginning and end of the month are determined by the sighting of the crescent moon.
This practice is a celebration of Prophet Muhammad’s first revelation, where he was visited by the angel Jibril and was imparted knowledge that would go on to become the holy Quran. Hence, the month is considered holy, wherein the benefits of sawm (fasting) and salat (prayers) are heightened and people can build better relationships with each other and god. It is said that observing Ramzan gives people a chance to learn patience, compassion for the less fortunate and break bad habits.
During the month of Ramzan, Muslims wake up early to have Sehri, a meal before dawn, and end their fast at dusk with a meal called Iftar. People suffering from illnesses and women who are menstruating, breastfeeding or pregnant, are exempt from fasting. Apart from food and drink, people observing Ramzan refuse to partake in tobacco products and sexual activities.
As a service to their community, Muslims also give to charity (zakat), host iftar dinners for the poor and needy and conduct nightly prayers called Tarawih at the mosque. The practices and traditions related to Ramzan differ from place to place. Commonly, streets, mosques and houses are decorated with lights and the Quran is recited. Some Islamic nations even have laws forbidding public eating, the use of tobacco and the sale of alcohol.
Aryabhata I was an Indian mathematician and astronomer, who lived during the reign of the Gupta empire. One of the world’s most acclaimed mathematicians, he is known as the ‘Father of Indian Mathematics’. Here are some interesting facts about the great thinker.
Illustration: Kavya Mittal
Birth year
Aryabhata mentions his age in his book Aryabhatiya. He mentions that he was 23 years old during the composition of Aryabhatiya and also noted that 3600 years had passed since the beginning of Kali Yuga. The implied year corresponds to 499 CE and thus suggests that Aryabhata was born in 476 CE.
Spell Check
There is a common tendency to spell the name of the mathematician as ‘Aryabhatta’, with the suffix ‘bhatta’. But it is interesting to note that the mathematician himself had mentioned his name as ‘Aryabhata’, with the suffix ‘bhata’, in the beginning and end of his book Aryabhatiya. Therefore, the correct spelling of his name would be Aryabhata.
Birthplace
There is still some debate among historians regarding the birthplace of Aryabhata. While some believe that he was born in Pataliputra (present-day Patna), others believe that the mathematician-astronomer was born in Kerala.
Aryabhata I or Aryabhata the Elder
Aryabhata is also known as Aryabhata I or Aryabhata the Elder to distinguish him from the tenth-century Indian mathematician with the same name. Aryabhata II also discussed theories, similar to the works of Aryabhata I, such as algebra, geometry, and their applications in calculating the longitudes of planets in his books.
Works of Aryabhata
Aryabhatiya, one of the major works of Aryabhata, was written in 499 AD and has survived to modern times. The book consists of 108 verses and covers many branches of mathematics such as arithmetic, algebra and trigonometry. Aryabhata also composed another work on astronomical computations named Arya-Siddhanta, whose contents are lost to modern historians. The existence of Arya-Siddhanta is known through the writings of the ancient astronomer Varahamihira. The book has also been mentioned in the commentaries of later mathematicians including Bhaskara I and Brahmagupta.
Major Discoveries
Aryabhata came up with the approximation of Pi and concluded that π is irrational. He also worked on the place value system and discovered zero for the first time. Some of the rules made by Aryabhata for the calculation of cube roots and squares by the arithmetical method, are still in use. In addition to this, Aryabhata also provided the circumference of the Earth as 39968.05 km and the radius of the orbits of nine planets. He also said that the Earth rotates on its axis and concluded that this is the reason we have days and nights.
Relation with Nalanda University
Aryabhata mentions in his book Aryabhatiya that he had been honoured in Kusumapura. Both Buddhist and Hindu traditions along with the reports of Bhaskara I, who provided commentary on Aryabhatiya, identify Kusumapura as Pataliputra, the capital city of Magadha. Since the University of Nalanda was situated in Pataliputra during that period and also because Aryabhata was mentioned as Kulapa (Head of Institution) in a verse, it has been speculated that he might have been the head of Nalanda University too.
Translations
The works of Aryabhata were translated into Arabic language from its original Sanskrit version. It also influenced the works of Persian polymath Al-Khwarizmi and Arab Astronomer Al-Zarqali. For instance, after Aryabhatiya was translated into Arabic around 820 CE, the approximation of Pi was mentioned in Al-Khwarizmi’s book on algebra.
Legacy and Honours
In 1975, The Indian Government launched its first satellite named Aryabhata to honour this great astronomer. The image of the Aryabhata satellite is featured on the reverse of an Indian 2-rupee note. A species of bacteria discovered by ISRO scientists in the Earth’s stratosphere was named Bacillus Aryabhata after him.
The Kalbelia tribe belongs to the Thar desert region of Rajasthan, who used to be professional snake charmers. Traditionally, this is a nomadic community, serpents are an important part of their livelihood, the Kalbelias revere these reptiles, especially the cobra. The killing of any snake is considered a sin and the tribe advocates for humane treatment of serpents, even if they enter homes and other domestic spaces.
Illustration: Mitushi Sharma
The Kalbelia dance is an important part of the culture of this tribe. This dance is performed as a celebration of their identity and culture and traditionally takes place in the desert, in front of a large bonfire. The men and women of the tribe gather around the fire, where the men play instruments and the women perform the Kalbelia dance. The clothes worn during the performance are also significant. The women wear lehengas, or long flowing skirts in red and black hues. When they perform the dance, the skirts swirl in the air, replicating the movement of a snake. The colours and patterns on the clothes too, represent various aspects of serpents and other animals reared by the tribe. In 2010, the folk dances and songs of the Kalbelia tribe were included in UNESCO’s Intangible Heritage List.
Note: Snake charming has been banned in India under the Wildlife Protection Act of 1972.
Ginger is best known for giving flavour to the distinctive Indian Masala Chai. However, it also has a host of other uses, take a look at some of the essential ones.
Tamil Nadu is the southernmost state of India, located in the southeast of our country. The kingdoms and empires of Tamil Nadu have played a major role in the history of British colonization in India and the region has a proud history of many freedom fighters who fought bravely against the British Empire in the freedom movement.
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Age of Empires
Ancient Tamil Nadu was home to three monarchical kingdoms, known as the Cheras, the Cholas and the Pandyas. In the early centuries, the Pallava dynasty ruled a large portion of South India, with Kanchipuram as their capital, around the 7th Century. The Pallavas were replaced as the dominant kingdom by the Chola Dynasty. Raja Raja Chola and his son Rajendra Chola built the famous Brihadeeswara Temple of Thanjavur. However, the Chola dynasty also witnessed a decline with the rise of Pandyas in the 13th Century. There are records that Marco Polo, a Venetian merchant, mentioned that the Pandya empire was the richest empire in existence during that period. The Cheras, who were in conflict with both the Cholas and the Pandyas, ruled parts of Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Around 1370, Tamil Nadu saw the rise of the Vijayanagara empire. The Vijayanagara empire thrived for the next two centuries until its defeat in the Battle of Talikota by the Deccan Sultanate in 1565.
The Impact of Anglo-French Conflict
In 1739, the French occupied the territory of Karaikal. Joseph Francois Dupleix was appointed as the Governor of Pondicherry. Soon after, a political conflict emerged between the British and the French. Chanda Sahib had been made the Nawab of the Carnatic with the assistance of the French Governor but the British fought for the cause of the previous incumbent, Mohammed Ali Khan Walajah. In 1751, British commander Robert Clive assisted Mohammed Ali in his war and took possession of Chanda Sahib’s fort in Arcot. Though the French assisted Chanda Sahib to drive Clive out of Arcot, they were defeated by the British forces. The outcome of this war, along with the growing British influence in 1765, made the Emperor of Delhi issue a decree, acknowledging the British possessions in southern India.
The First Spark of Rebellion
In the 1790s, a Palayakarar chieftain named Kattabomman rebelled against the taxes imposed by the East India Company. After the First Polygar War, he was captured and hanged in 1799. On 10th July 1806, the Vellore mutiny marked the first instance of a huge rebellion by the Indian sepoys against the East India Company. The slow and growing discontent over the actions of the company finally exploded in 1857 and transformed into the Sepoy Mutiny, famously known as the First War of Indian Independence. As a consequence of this war, the Act of 1858 was enforced by the British Government, to abolish the powers of the East India Company and transfer the government directly to the British Crown.
Freedom Fighters from the State
Direct rule in India was assumed by the British Crown in 1858. Soon, the desire for independence slowly gathered pace in the country. In this struggle for independence, revolutionaries in Tamil Nadu joined the fight against British rule. Tamil Nadu produced many freedom fighters who sacrificed their lives for the freedom movement. Notable freedom fighters were Tiruppur Kumaran, who sacrificed his life holding the Indian flag during his protest against the British, the poet Subramania Bharti, who wrote revolutionary poems in Tamil, Aurobindo, the philosopher, who gave refuge to freedom fighters in Pondicherry, V.O Chidambaram Pillai, who launched first shipping service between India and Srilanka to compete against the British ships and Captain Lakshmi Sahgal, a prominent leader in the Indian National Army’s Rani of Jhansi Regiment, founded by Subash Chandra bose.
Post-Independence
Post Independence, Madras Presidency was reconstituted as Madras State. Madras State included present-day Tamil Nadu, parts of Kerala, coastal regions of Andhra Pradesh and south Canara district of Karnataka. Soon, Andhra Pradesh, Kerala and Karnataka were separated from Madras State based on their linguistic preferences. In 1969, Madras State was renamed Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu experienced significant economic growth in the 1990s, particularly in the service sector. Currently, the economy of Tamil Nadu is the second highest in India and the state ranks 11th in the Human Development Index (HDI) among the Indian states.
Gokulashtami, or the birth anniversary of Lord Krishna, is one of India’s most beloved festivals. In Maharashtra, celebrations in most places are largely centred around the dahi handi. Almost every neighbourhood sees young boys and girls forming intricate pyramids to reach the pot of food strung up high above. While dahi handi literally translates to ‘pot filled with curd’, this description is not exactly accurate, since the pot actually contains a specially made festive dish called ‘Gopalkala’.
Illustration: Ram Waeerkar
Gopalkala is a typical Maharashtrian, yoghurt-based dish which is filled in the dahi handi and also offered as prasad on the festive day. This dish contains a myriad of ingredients such as curd, milk, cream, puffed rice, flattened rice, pulses, cucumber, guavas, apples, spices, pickles and much more. The absence of an exact recipe is one of the most interesting aspects of Gopalkala and it ties in with the significance of the dish itself.
Lord Krishna is believed to have favoured curd and other dairy products, and so, they occupy a prime position in Gopalkala. However, apart from curd, the other ingredients of the dish are largely variable, to signify the importance of equality and togetherness.
According to common customs, Gopalkala is meant to be prepared potluck style, with members of a neighbourhood or community each bringing one or two ingredients of the dish, which are all mixed together in the end. Since communities are made up of economically disparate families, the inclusion of common household foods such as spices or flattened rice is significant in promoting togetherness despite outer differences. People are able to bring whatever food they have at home and become part of the festivities with their communities.
Lord Krishna is known to be one of the most humble gods in our mythology. Having spent his childhood as a cowherd among milkmaids and farmers, Krishna personifies the values surrounding community, equality and solidarity. Thus, Gopalkala is not simply a festive dish or a prasad. Rather, it is a material reminder for people to inculcate the values Lord Krishna stood for.
Republic Day is celebrated on the 26th of January each year to mark the day that the Constitution of India came into effect. The Constitution of India or the Bharatiya Samvidhan is the document that is considered the supreme law of the nation. It lays down rules and frameworks regarding political structures and procedures of the government, civil, criminal and other codes as well as the rights and duties of the citizens. It is the longest written constitution in the world and it took two years, eleven months and seventeen days to be drafted. The constitution was completed and adopted on 26th November 1949 and came into effect on 26th January 1950. It was therefore on 26th January that the Union of India became the Republic of India. Here are the great minds responsible for the creation of our constitution:
B.N. Rau
Sir Benegal Narsing Rau was the first person who contributed to the Indian constitution. He was a civil servant, who went on to become the first Indian Judge in the International Court of Justice. He was appointed as the constitutional adviser in 1946, and was responsible for the determination of the general structure of the constitution. He prepared and completed the first draft in 1948, which consisted of 243 articles and 13 schedules.
B.R. Ambedkar
After the completion of the first draft, the constitution was handed over to a seven-member drafting committee, which was headed by Dr Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar, for further discussion and amendments. Dr Ambedkar was a jurist, economist, politician and social reformer who worked for the Bahujan community. He became the first Law and Justice Minister of Independent India and received the Bharat Ratna in 1990. Today, he is often referred to as the Father of the Indian Constitution.
Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer
Having served as the Advocate General of Madras State from 1929 to 1944, Dewan Bahadur Sir Alladi Krishnaswami Ayyar was an important member of the Constituent Assembly as well as the Drafting Committee. Despite having studied History at Madras Christian College, he was interested in law and passed the B.L. exam to become one of the leading members of the Bar in India.
Gopalaswami Ayyanger
Dewan Bahadur Sir Narasimha Gopalaswami Ayyangar was the Prime Minister of the princely state of Kashmir and later became the leader of the Rajya Sabha. He was a ‘minister without a portfolio’, who primarily looked after Kashmir Affairs and became the Minister for Railways. He represented India at the United Nations Security Council to discuss Kashmir and drafted Article 370 that granted autonomy to Jammu and Kashmir.
K.M. Munshi
Kanhaiyalal Maneklal Munshi was an Independence activist, politician and writer from Gujarat. A lawyer by profession, he later became an author writing under the pen name Ghanshyam Vyas. Apart from being an important member of the Drafting Committee, K.M. Munshi had also held posts such as Minister of Agriculture and Food of India and Governor of Uttar Pradesh.
Mohammad Saadulla
Sir Syed Muhammad Saadulla was the Prime Minister of Assam in British India and was also the Chairman of Guwahati Municipality. Having worked in Assam at different posts of the government, he was elected to the Constituent Assembly of India in 1947 and played an integral role in the drafting process. He was the only member from the North Eastern States to be elected to the committee.
B.L. Mitter
B.L. Mitter worked with the Dewan of Baroda and was involved in the process of integration of the princely states after Independence. He was later appointed as a member of the Drafting Committee. He had previously worked in the Law Ministry and also as the Advocate General of West Bengal. B.L. Mitter had to resign from the committee due to ill-health and was replaced with Madhav Rao, a legal advisor to the Maharaja of Vadodara.
D.P. Khaitan
Debi Prasad Khaitan was the owner and founder of one of the oldest law firms in India, Khaitan and Co. His law firm was a pioneer in many ways, being one of the few firms to represent Indian industrialists in the pre-independence era. He passed away in 1948, after which he was replaced by T.T. Krishnamachari, an economist and politician who went on to become the Finance Minister.
The tangy fruit, lemon, finds its application in many culinary and non-culinary uses. Not only is it used extensively to flavour food, but it also has value as an anti-bacterial. Here are a few important uses of lemon.
Tilgul is a major tradition of Makar Sankranti. ‘Til‘, meaning sesame seeds and ‘gul‘ meaning jaggery, make up this delicious but simple sweet treat. Extremely popular in Maharashtra, this sweet is made by mixing jaggery and sesame seeds, sometimes along with other ingredients like coconut or dry fruits, and making small laddoos or chikki from it.
Sesame seeds are very nutritious, containing zinc, copper, iron and other vitamins, which are great for building good immunity. Since wintertime brings with it cases of cough, cold and flu, eating sesame seeds is a way to keep the body healthy. Furthermore, jaggery is known to produce heat inside the body, another plus point in cold climes. Thus, tilgul is not only a tasty snack, but also a healthy and nutritious addition to your winter diet.
Sesame seeds are mentioned many times in our ancient texts and have some interesting beliefs associated with them. According to some legends, these seeds were blessed by Yama, the God of Death, and can therefore grant immortality. This is also why black sesame seeds are said to be the food of departed souls. Some others believe that the seeds were created when drops of Vishnu’s sweat solidified, and that they contain the essence of the divine in them.
While tilgul is prepared and eaten throughout winter, it is specifically made for the festival of Makar Sankranti, which falls in mid-January. On Sankranti, families and friends exchange tilgul sweets and say to each other,
“Tilgul kha, goad goad bola”, meaning “Have sweet tilgul and speak sweet words.”
